Data Curation at Scale

The internet is humanity's attic: priceless treasures buried under mountains of junk. Data curation is the art of sorting through it all without accidentally teaching your model to sell cryptocurrency.

Scale, Dumpster Diving AI Agent

6.4.1 Pretraining Data Sources

Modern LLMs are trained on a mixture of data drawn from several broad categories. The composition of this mixture profoundly influences the model's strengths and weaknesses.

Common Crawl is by far the largest publicly available source, containing petabytes of raw HTML from billions of web pages collected since 2008. However, raw Common Crawl is overwhelmingly low quality: advertisements, boilerplate navigation text, spam, pornography, and machine-generated content dominate. Turning this raw crawl into useful training data requires a sophisticated curation pipeline.

6.4.2 The Data Curation Pipeline

6.4.3 Text Extraction

Raw HTML must be converted to clean text before any further processing (similar extraction challenges arise when building retrieval pipelines, as discussed in Section 35.1). This is harder than it sounds. Web pages contain navigation menus, sidebars, advertisements, cookie banners, JavaScript artifacts, and boilerplate footers that vastly outnumber the actual content. Tools like trafilatura and resiliparse use structural heuristics to identify the main content block and strip everything else. The FineWeb project demonstrated that switching from the simple jusText extractor to trafilatura produced measurably better downstream performance.

6.4.4 Deduplication

Web crawl data is extraordinarily redundant. The same news article, boilerplate legal text, or copied content may appear thousands of times. Duplicate data wastes training compute, biases the model toward overrepresented content, and increases memorization risk. Deduplication operates at three levels of granularity.

Exact Deduplication

The simplest approach: compute a hash (MD5, SHA-256) of each document and discard exact duplicates. This is fast but misses near-duplicates that differ by a few characters (timestamps, bylines, formatting).

Near-Duplicate Detection with MinHash

MinHash with Locality-Sensitive Hashing (LSH) is the standard technique for finding near-duplicate documents at scale. The core idea: represent each document as a set of n-grams, compute a compact signature (MinHash), and use LSH to efficiently find documents with high Jaccard similarity. Two documents are considered near-duplicates if their Jaccard similarity exceeds a threshold (typically 0.8):

The "why" behind MinHash specifically. Computing exact Jaccard for all document pairs is quadratic (10 billion docs gives 5 × 10^19 pairs) and impossible at web scale. MinHash exploits a beautiful probabilistic identity: if you hash every n-gram of a document with k independent hash functions and keep the minimum hash per function, the fraction of those k minima that match between two documents is an unbiased estimator of their Jaccard similarity. So you replace each document with a fixed-size k-dimensional signature, compare signatures (constant time) instead of full sets, and tune k for the variance you can tolerate. LSH then layers a second trick: bucket signatures so that documents sharing any band of consecutive minima collide, turning even the all-pairs comparison into a near-linear scan. Without these two compressions, deduplicating Common Crawl would cost more compute than training the model.

where $A$ and $B$ are the n-gram sets of two documents. The MinHash technique approximates this similarity in O(k) time using $k$ hash functions, rather than computing the exact set intersection.

# MinHash + LSH deduplication: hash character n-grams into signatures,
# bucket similar documents together, and flag near-duplicate pairs.
import hashlib
from collections import defaultdict
def get_ngrams(text, n=5):
    """Extract character n-grams from text."""
    words = text.lower().split()
    return set(
        " ".join(words[i:i+n])
        for i in range(len(words) - n + 1)
        )
def minhash_signature(ngrams, num_hashes=128):
    """Compute MinHash signature for a set of n-grams."""
    signature = []
    for i in range(num_hashes):
        min_hash = float('inf')
        for ngram in ngrams:
            # Hash with a different seed for each hash function
            h = int(hashlib.sha256(
                f"{i}:{ngram}".encode()
                ).hexdigest(), 16)
            min_hash = min(min_hash, h)
            signature.append(min_hash)
            return signature
def lsh_buckets(signature, bands=16):
    """Split signature into bands for LSH bucketing."""
    rows_per_band = len(signature) // bands
    buckets = []
    for b in range(bands):
        start = b * rows_per_band
        band_hash = hash(tuple(signature[start:start + rows_per_band]))
        buckets.append((b, band_hash))
        return buckets
# Example: find near-duplicates
docs = [
    "The quick brown fox jumps over the lazy dog in the park",
    "The quick brown fox jumps over a lazy dog in the park", # near-dup
    "Machine learning models require large amounts of data",
    ]
bucket_index = defaultdict(list)
for doc_id, doc in enumerate(docs):
    ngrams = get_ngrams(doc, n=3)
    sig = minhash_signature(ngrams, num_hashes=64)
    for bucket in lsh_buckets(sig, bands=8):
        bucket_index[bucket].append(doc_id)
        # Find candidate pairs that share a bucket
        candidates = set()
        for docs_in_bucket in bucket_index.values():
            if len(docs_in_bucket) > 1:
                for i in range(len(docs_in_bucket)):
                    for j in range(i+1, len(docs_in_bucket)):
                        candidates.add((docs_in_bucket[i], docs_in_bucket[j]))
                        print(f"Near-duplicate candidates: {candidates}")

Substring-Level Deduplication

Document-level deduplication misses repeated paragraphs that appear across otherwise unique documents (e.g., license headers, terms of service). Substring deduplication uses suffix arrays to find repeated sequences of n or more tokens that appear in multiple documents, then removes all but one occurrence. The RefinedWeb and DCLM datasets demonstrated that substring deduplication consistently improves model quality.

6.4.5 Quality Filtering

After deduplication, the remaining text still varies enormously in quality. Quality filtering separates informative, well-written content from spam, gibberish, and low-effort text. Three complementary strategies are commonly used together.

Heuristic Filters

Rule-based filters are fast and interpretable. Common heuristics include removing documents that are too short (under 100 words), have excessive punctuation or capitalization ratios, contain too many URLs or special characters, have an abnormally low alphabetic character ratio, or have too many repeated lines or paragraphs.

Perplexity-Based Filtering

A small language model (often a KenLM n-gram model trained on Wikipedia) is used to score each document's perplexity. Documents with very high perplexity (incoherent text) or very low perplexity (repetitive boilerplate) are discarded. The CCNet pipeline introduced this approach and demonstrated significant quality improvements.

Classifier-Based Filtering

A binary classifier is trained to distinguish "high-quality" text (e.g., Wikipedia, books) from "low-quality" text (random web samples). The FineWeb-Edu dataset used a quality classifier trained on educational content annotations to produce a subset of FineWeb specifically optimized for knowledge-intensive tasks. Chapter 15 explores how synthetic data generation can complement these curation pipelines when natural data is scarce. DCLM used a fastText classifier trained on references from Wikipedia and OpenWebText to score documents on a quality scale.

# Minimal quality filtering pipeline
import re
from collections import Counter
def heuristic_quality_filter(doc: str) -> dict:
    """Apply heuristic quality filters to a document."""
    words = doc.split()
    lines = doc.strip().split("\n")
    chars = len(doc)
    word_count = len(words)
    # Length check
    if word_count < 50:
        return {"pass": False, "reason": "too_short"}
        # Alphabetic character ratio
        alpha_ratio = sum(c.isalpha() for c in doc) / max(chars, 1)
        if alpha_ratio < 0.6:
            return {"pass": False, "reason": "low_alpha"}
            # Repeated line ratio (boilerplate detection)
            line_counts = Counter(lines)
            repeated = sum(c - 1 for c in line_counts.values() if c > 1)
            if repeated / max(len(lines), 1) > 0.3:
                return {"pass": False, "reason": "repetitive"}
                # URL density (spam detection)
                url_count = len(re.findall(r"https?://", doc))
                if url_count / max(word_count, 1) > 0.1:
                    return {"pass": False, "reason": "url_heavy"}
                    return {"pass": True, "words": word_count, "alpha": round(alpha_ratio, 3)}
                    # Test on sample documents
                    samples = [
                        ("Good article", "The transformer architecture has revolutionized NLP by enabling parallel attention. " * 8),
                        ("Too short", "Click here now"),
                        ("Spam", "Visit https://a.com and https://b.com and https://c.com now " * 5),
                        ("Repetitive", ("Buy now!\n" * 20) + "Some padding text to reach minimum length for a valid document check."),
                        ]
                    for label, doc in samples:
                        result = heuristic_quality_filter(doc)
                        print(f"{label:>15}: {result}")

# pip install datasets
from datasets import load_dataset
# Stream FineWeb-Edu (15T tokens) without downloading the full dataset
ds = load_dataset(
    "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu",
    name="sample-10BT", # 10B-token sample for experimentation
    split="train",
    streaming=True, # essential for large corpora
    )
# Inspect a few documents and their quality scores
for i, example in enumerate(ds):
    print(f"Score: {example['score']:.1f} | "
        f"Length: {len(example['text']):,} chars | "
        f"URL: {example['url'][:60]}")
    if i >= 4:
        break
        # Filter for high-quality educational content on the fly
        high_quality = ds.filter(lambda x: x["score"] >= 4.0)

6.4.6 Data Mixing and Domain Proportions

The final training corpus is a weighted mixture of data from different domains. The proportions of this mixture directly shape the model's capabilities. More code in the mix sharpens reasoning and structured output. More scientific text deepens factual knowledge.

Optimal mixing proportions come from ablation experiments on smaller proxy models. DoReMi (Xie et al., 2023) automates this: train a small proxy with uniform mixing, then use the per-domain training loss distribution to reweight, upsampling domains where the model struggles and downsampling those already well-learned.

# Simplified domain mixing with weighted sampling
import numpy as np
# Domain proportions (must sum to 1.0)
domain_weights = {
    "web": 0.55,
    "code": 0.15,
    "books": 0.10,
    "wikipedia": 0.05,
    "scientific": 0.08,
    "math": 0.04,
    "conversation": 0.03,
    }
def sample_batch(domain_weights, batch_size=1024):
    """Sample a training batch according to domain proportions."""
    domains = list(domain_weights.keys())
    probs = list(domain_weights.values())
    # Each sample in the batch comes from a domain
    batch_domains = np.random.choice(domains, size=batch_size, p=probs)
    counts = {d: int((batch_domains == d).sum()) for d in domains}
    return counts
batch = sample_batch(domain_weights)
for domain, count in sorted(batch.items(), key=lambda x: -x[1]):
    bar = "#" * (count // 10)
    print(f"  {domain:<15} {count:4d} samples  {bar}")

6.4.7 Toxicity and PII Removal

Pretraining data must be filtered for toxic content (hate speech, explicit material, harassment) and personally identifiable information (PII) such as phone numbers, email addresses, and social security numbers. The broader ethical considerations of data sourcing and model safety are covered in Chapter 47. Toxicity classifiers like the Jigsaw Perspective API or custom fastText models flag documents above a toxicity threshold. PII removal typically uses regex patterns for structured identifiers combined with named entity recognition for names and addresses.

6.4.8 Data Pruning and Influence Functions

Beyond filtering for quality, recent research explores selecting the most informative training examples. Data pruning removes redundant or uninformative samples to train on a smaller, higher-quality subset without sacrificing performance.

Influence functions provide a principled approach: they estimate how much each training example contributes to the model's performance on a validation set. Formally, the influence of training example $z_{i}$ on the loss at validation point $z_{test}$ is:

where $H_{ \theta }$ is the Hessian of the training loss. Computing exact influence functions is prohibitively expensive for large models (the Hessian has $N^{2}$ entries), so practical approaches use approximations such as LiSSA (Linear time Stochastic Second-Order Algorithm) or track gradient statistics during training as proxies for influence.

Data Quality Over Quantity: The "Textbooks Are All You Need" Paradigm

The scaling laws from Kaplan et al. and Chinchilla established that more data generally leads to better models. But a parallel line of research has demonstrated that data quality can partially substitute for data quantity, producing surprisingly capable models at a fraction of the expected parameter count. The most striking evidence comes from Microsoft's Phi model family.

The original Phi-1 (Gunasekar et al., 2023) was a 1.3B parameter model trained on only 7B tokens of carefully curated "textbook quality" code data, plus 1B tokens of synthetically generated exercises. Despite its tiny scale, Phi-1 achieved 50.6% on HumanEval (a code generation benchmark), matching or exceeding models 10x its size that were trained on orders of magnitude more data. The key insight, articulated in the paper's title "Textbooks Are All You Need," was that a small amount of high-quality, pedagogically structured data could teach reasoning patterns more efficiently than massive volumes of noisy web scrapes.

Phi-1.5 extended the approach to general natural language, using a combination of curated web data and synthetic "textbook" content generated by GPT-3.5. The synthetic data was specifically designed to include step-by-step explanations, worked examples, and structured reasoning, the kind of content found in good textbooks rather than typical web pages. Phi-1.5 (1.3B parameters) achieved performance comparable to models 5 to 10 times its size on reasoning benchmarks.

The later Phi-3 (3.8B parameters) and Phi-4 (14B parameters) continued the philosophy at larger scales, combining heavily curated web data with synthetic data generated through increasingly sophisticated pipelines. Phi-3 Mini, at just 3.8B parameters, matched Mixtral 8x7B (46.7B total parameters) on several reasoning benchmarks. Phi-4 introduced "pivotal token search," a technique that identifies tokens where the model's prediction is most uncertain and uses those to generate targeted training examples that address specific knowledge gaps.

The Phi results have influenced how the broader community thinks about pretraining data. The FineWeb-Edu dataset from Hugging Face applies a similar philosophy at larger scale: it uses a classifier trained on educational content to score web pages, retaining only the most informative subset. Models trained on FineWeb-Edu consistently outperform those trained on the same volume of unfiltered data. The practical takeaway is that investing in data quality (through curation, filtering, or synthetic generation) often yields better returns than simply scaling data volume. This is especially relevant as the supply of high-quality natural text approaches its limits.

6.4.9 Synthetic Data for Pretraining

As high-quality natural text becomes scarce, synthetic data generated by LLMs themselves has become an increasingly important part of the pretraining pipeline. The key insight is that a capable model can generate high-quality training data for a less capable model (or even for future training stages of itself).

Microsoft's Phi-3 and Phi-4 models demonstrated this powerfully: they were trained substantially on synthetic "textbook-quality" data generated by larger models. Despite being small (3.8B parameters), Phi-3 rivaled models many times its size on reasoning benchmarks, largely because its training data was exceptionally high quality. The key was generating structured, educational content (explanations, worked examples, reasoning chains) rather than simply paraphrasing web text.

Quality control for synthetic data is critical. Without careful filtering, model-generated text can amplify biases, introduce subtle errors, or create distribution collapse (where the synthetic data converges to a narrow mode of the generating model). Effective strategies include:

• Verification: Use a separate model or tool to check factual claims in generated text
• Diversity enforcement: Vary prompts, topics, and generation parameters to prevent mode collapse
• Human curation: Use human reviewers to audit a sample of synthetic data for quality
• Mixing: Blend synthetic data with natural data rather than using it exclusively

Exercises

6.4.10 Major Open Datasets